Smallholder Farmers’ Perceptions of Climate Change, Vulnerability and Adaptation in the Context of Multiple Factors in the Tigray region of Ethiopia

Abstract

This study investigated perceptions, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change in the context of non-climatic factors, by focusing on smallholder farmers in the Tigray region, Ethiopia. A mixed-method case study approach was adopted to collect qualitative and quantitative data that included a survey of 400 smallholder farmers, focus groups, participatory rural appraisal techniques and interviews. The findings revealed that most farmers perceive changes in the local climate, and that various socio-psychological factors shape their risk perceptions of climate change. The findings also demonstrated that farmers and their livelihoods are vulnerable to both climatic and non-climatic stressors. Farmers are taking various forms of farm and non-farm related adaptation measures to respond to climatic as well as non-climatic stressors. However, some of their adaptation strategies – specifically migration, firewood extraction and irrigation – carried the risk of maladaptation. The results revealed a deficit in planned adaptation efforts by the state and NGOs at the local level. At the government level, although the issue of climate change and adaptation needs are well recognized in various policy documents, the implementation of concrete adaptation actions at the local level is still lagging behind. This study found only two planned adaptation interventions – the natural resource management program and weather index insurance program, which are being implemented by the government and NGOs respectively. However, even these two interventions were found to create unintended (maladaptive) outcomes by rebounding vulnerability to the targeted farmers. Besides these two planned adaptation interventions, the findings indicate that the government’s broad development policies (e.g. agricultural policies) are also increasing the risk of maladaptation by having a profound negative impact on the farmers’ livelihoods. Overall, the central argument of this study is that climate change should not be viewed as the only big problem confronting smallholder farmers in rural Ethiopia. The findings of this study have important implications for adaptation policy and practice, in Ethiopia and Africa more broadly. First, the findings emphasize the need to consider the non-climatic drivers of vulnerability in the design and implementation of planned adaptation programs and projects at the local level. In other words, planned adaptation efforts are likely to be successful if the climatic and non-climatic conditions farmers experience in everyday life can be addressed simultaneously. Second, the findings highlight that the risk of maladaptation needs to be carefully considered by the government when formulating adaptation policies or prior to the implementation of projects and programs to avoid negative outcomes on the targeted smallholder farmers.